Review Sheets

Was anyone planning on making a bio review? like answwering all the questions on past review sheets or something? cause with this much material, i think we need one.

im guessing that jon will put up all of the old reviews that he has made for the tests you might wanna ask him though

jake study your old tests if you dont have the correct answers get them from someone like jon

to all- mr. parker is holding a review session after school on tuesday to go over the old test so if you have questions on tests go to it

I will spread the word of the biology review as best i can thanx for the update

Biology...the study of life
(in case you didn't know that)

Here is Alex's contribution for the year:

TRANSCRIPTION, TRANSLATION, REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION, AND MICROBIAL GENETICS

1. RNA is ribonucleic acid. its carbohydrate component is ribose, instead of deoxyribose. Ribose has an extra hydroxyl group on its 2-carbon that deoxyribose does not. RNA uses uracil instead of thymine. It is usually single-stranded, and therefore less stable than DNA.
2. Jkkjh
3. Transcription is the transfer of a DNA sequence into an RNA molecule. There are three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to a DNA sequence called a promoter. The promoter is the starting point of the sequence to be copied. Next, in elongation, RNA polymerase continues along the DNA strand, creating an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand. Lastly RNA reaches a terminator, a DNA sequence that the enzyme recognizes and instructs it to stop. Diagram
4. A promoter is a sequence of DNA that RNA polymerase recognizes as the starting point for translation.
5. There are three types of RNA: messenger RNA, which is read by a ribosome to make protein, ribosomal RNA, which is the catalytic component of ribosomes, and transfer RNA, which is used in translation for reading RNA sequences and pairing codons with the proper amino acid.
6. Our genetic code is universal; it is the same for nearly all organisms. It is redundant; more than one codon codes for a particular amino acid. It is not ambiguous; a given codon always codes for the same amino acid.
7. Translation is the process of creating a polypeptide based on the instructions of an RNA code.
8. Transfer RNA is a single strand of RNA. Since normally that is unstable, it has folded on itself. It has an anticodon complementary to a specific codon of mRNA, and an amino acid attachment site that contains an amino acid specific to its anticodon. It is called an adapter because for each codon of mRNA, there is a unique anticodon of a tRNA molecule that represents a specific amino acid. So the tRNA reads a codon and if it is complementary to its anticodon then it attaches its amino acid to the forming polypeptide strand.
9. DNA→mRNA (tRNA, ribosome) →polypeptide chain
10. A mutation is an unintentional change in the genetic material. One type is chromosomal, in which a section of a chromosome is deleted, re-arranged, or translocated. Another type is a Point mutation, in which a change is made in a single nucleotide of DNA.
11. The two types of point mutations are base substitutions and insertion/deletion. Base substitutions can be ‘silent’ (meaning the mutations does not change the polypeptide because the mutated codon codes for the same amino acid), missense (resulting in a different amino acid), or nonsense (the mutation codes for a stop, resulting in the premature termination of translation).
12. Spontaneous, induced mutations
13. The regulation of gene expression is important for efficiency. A cell can control when we need or need not make energy based upon its availability in the environment. It is also important for cell specialization. During embryonic development cells can focus on specific functions because certain chemicals or energy sources are supplied by other cells, so a cell does not need to be responsible for all the things it needs for life; other cells have that purpose.
14. Gene regulation can occur during transcription, translation or expression. We do not regulate at the chromosomal level, because if a gene was not needed at one point because the protein it created was found in the environment, when the protein was not available, the cell could not create it on its own. It is most logical to regulate at the transcription level, because the cell does not waste Energy going through translation. Else?
15. An operon is a segment of genetic material found in prokaryotes that allows for genetic regulation. It has three components: the promoter, the operator, and the structural genes. The promoter is the sequence of DNA that marks the beginning of transcription. The operator is a DNA sequence to which a repressor protein or inhibitor binds to. It is located near the promoter. The structural genes are genes that code for proteins with related functions and are all transcribed from the same promoter. An inducible operon is one whose genes are normally “off” but are turned “on” by environmental stimuli. A repressible operon is one whose genes are normally “on” but are turned “off” by environmental stimuli.
16. The lac operon is an operon in E. coli that controls the production of lactose-utilizing proteins. It is inducible. A lac repressor codes for an enzyme that has an active site that bonds to the lac operon’s operator. In normal environmental conditions, when lactose is present in the environment, the lac repressor binds to the lac operon’s operator, effectively blocking RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon’s genes. So, E. coli does not waste energy creating enzymes that are only used when lactose is present. However, when lactose is present in the environment, a lactose molecule binds to the allosteric site of the lac repressor, changing its shape. Now, the lac repressor cannot bind to the lac operon’s operator and the lactose-utilizing proteins are made so the bacterium can breakdown lactose for metabolic purposes.
17. The trp operon is an operon in E. coli that makes tryptophan. In normal environmental circumstances, the trp repressor, coded for by its own gene elsewhere on the bacterium’s DNA, does not bind to the trp operon’s operator. So, in the cell, tryptophan is normally made. However, in the presence of tryptophan, a tryptophan molecule binds to an allosteric site of the trp repressor, so that now, the repressor binds to the operator and the cell does not create tryptophan, wasting energy when it could get the trp from its environment. The trp operon is repressible.
18. A virus is a non-living particle that relies on living cells for the continuation of its genetic material (not necessarily reproduction). It cannot reproduce on its own and therefore is not considered to be living. However, they have an important affect on the cells of all living things.
19. Viral reproduction: the lytic cycle—enter the cell, insert DNA; transcription, translation of viral genes (replication); assembly of new viruses; lysis of cell. The lysogenic cycle of latent viruses: DNA integrates into host chromosome and is replicated with it. The inserted DNA is called a prophage, and it could become lysogenic or lytic.
20. A retrovirus is a virus with RNA as its genetic material that carries reverse transcriptase. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that catalyzes reverse transcription in which RNA becomes DNA. HIV is a retrovirus. The reverse transcriptase enzyme it carries converts its viral RNA into DNA, adding a complementary strand. The new double-stranded viral DNA is called a provirus as it enters the nucleus of a cell and incorporates itself into the chromosomal DNA. The cell then reads the provirus, making new retroviruses to infect other cells. An important application of reverse transcriptase has been used to determine which genes a cell uses. Since all cells have the same DNA, just studying the DNA of a cardiac cell would be the same as studying the DNA of a liver cell. However, the mRNA of a cell represents a complementary strand of the genes used in its metabolism. So if we transcribe that RNA back into DNA, we see what genes the cell uses.
21. Bacteria reproduce asexually by means of binary fission. A bacterium copies it’s DNA and its cytoplasm and cell wall split into two identical daughter cells. It’s cloning.
22. A plasmid an extrachromosomal circular DNA in bacteria that are not necessary for life but may confer an advantage to the bacterium. The R plasmid grants antibiotic resistance. The F plasmid gives a bacterium sex pili, giving it the ability to conjugate. Certain plasmids also give bacteria abilities to utilize unique food sources, so a bacterium is less dependant on certain energy sources.
23. Three ways by which bacteria can acquire genetic diversity are transformation (bacteria acquire DNA from the environment and incorporate it into their chromosomes), transduction (bacteria acquire new bacterial DNA carried by a phage from a previous infection), and by conjugation (a donor bacterium transfers DNA to recipient bacterium.

TERMS
RNA polymerase-the enzyme that reads DNA sequences and creates a complementary RNA sequence
Promoter-the sequence of DNA which RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to, marking the beginning of transcription
Template strand-the strand of DNA that RNA polymerase will be transcribing
Termination sequence-the DNA sequence that marks the end of transcription, RNA polymerase recognizes and quits
Introns-A transcribed segment of DNA that does not affect the exon, it is removed before the mRNA sequence leaves the nucleus for translation
Exons-the transcribed segment of DNA that is translated into the polypeptide sequence
Codon¬-a three-based RNA sequence that represents an amino acid to be translated by tRNA
Anticodon-the sequence of amino acid-carrying tRNA that is complementary to an mRNA codon.
Amino acid attachment site-the site on tRNA that an amino acid is attached to
Start codon-the RNA sequence that tells the ribosome to begin translation
Stop codon-the RNA sequence that tells the ribosome to end translation
Termination factor-
Operator-a segment of DNA of a prokaryote’s operon to which a repressor binds to restrict the transcription of genes
Structural genes-those genes of an operon that are regulated, they are transcribed together because they are related
Repressor-the enzyme that binds to an operator blocking RNA polymerase

and also:

EVOLUTION & SPECIATION
1. Evolution is the gradual change in, or development of a species or a population.
2. Biogeography is the geographic distribution of species into different environments.
3. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that organisms, by using or not using their body parts, change their traits and pass the changes to its offspring.
4. The voyage on the H. M. S. Beagle was to travel the South American coast making maps, and exploring unknown areas. Darwin spent the voyage observing and recording the life he saw. The works of Charles Lyell and Thomas Malthus influenced his ideas. Lyell proposed that the earth is old, much older than previously thought, and that it is changing. Malthus said that among humans there is a struggle for survival in overpopulated areas.
5. In 1859 Darwin published his On the Origin of Species. Though the essay was nearly completed in the 1840s, he knew that his essay would be inflammatory so he delayed publishing it. He spent the next several years compiling more evidence to support his theories. Alfred Wallace had composed a theory similar to Darwin’s and in 1858 two of Darwin’s colleagues presented their works to the scientific communities and Darwin decided to publish his paper.
6. Darwin’s theory of natural selection says that individuals with variations best suited for their environment are more likely to reproduce than other individuals in the populations passing these variations disproportionately to their offspring. Fitness is a measure of an individual’s relative reproductive success.
7. A population is a group of individuals of the same species living together in the same geographic area.
8. The gene pool is the various differences in alleles present in a population.
9. Genetic variation is a result of mutations, sexual reproduction and meiosis. Mutations cause changes in bases of the DNA strand. In meiosis there is crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes, and sexual reproduction combines two random gametes.
10. Allele frequency is the rate of occurrence of an allele in individuals of the same species. The ;lkj;lkj;lk
11. Population genetics is the observation of the genotypes and phenotypes of a population of individuals of the same species. Microevolution is the changes in the genetics of a population over generations.
12. Okay
13. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes the state of a population that is not evolving.
14. To be at genetic equilibrium, within a population, there can be no new mutations, no natural selection, no sexual selection, no migration, and there must be a large, ideally an infinite, population.
15. The frequencies of alleles must add to 1. P+ q = 1, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.
16. Immigration is the migration of individuals into a population, and emigration is the migration of individuals from a population.
17. Gene flow is the movement of individuals into and out of populations, this adds or removes alleles from a population, altering the gene pool.
18. Three types of natural selection are stabilizing selection, directional selection, and disruptive selection. Stabilizing selection favors intermediate phenotypes. Some sort of environmental pressures cause declined reproductive success of individuals with extreme phenotypes and therefore the evolved population is made of individuals with intermediate phenotypes. Directional selection shifts the overall makeup of the population by acting against individuals at one of the phenotypic extremes. Disruptive selection occurs when environmental conditions are varied in a way that favors individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range.
19. Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies due to random events or causes. The smaller the population, the more susceptible it is to genetic drift. It reduces genetic variation.
20. Two types of genetic drift are the bottleneck effect and the founder effect. The bottleneck effect is a phenomenon in which a natural disaster or something reduces the population size drastically leaving only a small number of individuals alive. Since these individuals represent only a small portion of the original population, the gene pool of the surviving population has been reduced. The frequency of alleles is changed, some alleles can occur disproportionately frequently and others may have been removed all together.
21. The founder effect occurs when a small group of individuals from a population form new populations in a different location than the original. This new population has only a small number of the allele frequencies as the original so the gene pool is changed. In the new habitat, these individuals can generate a new population genetically different from the original.
22. Sexual selection is a form of natural selection in which individuals with a certain characteristic are more likely to reproduce than other individuals. It can result in sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism is the distinction in appearance between males and females of the same species.
23. Evidence for evolution can be found in the fossil records (Comparisons in fossils of extinct and extant organisms), biogeography (individuals who live in closer habitats are more closely related than individuals of similar environment but located far away), comparative morphology (relatedness of structures that look the same or function the same in different organisms), embryology (comparisons in embryonic development of a species), and molecular comparisons (DNA sequence and protein comparisons).
24. Macroevolution is the total of evolutionary changes on a grand scale. Through the gradual, microevolutionary changes in populations caused by various factors, and given time, new species develop. This is speciation.
25. The biological concept of species, proposed by Ernest Mayr, says that a species is a group of populations who have the ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
26. Genetic divergence is leoiuqoito
27. Reproductive isolation or barriers are biological features intrinsic to an organism that prevent individuals of closely related species from interbreeding when their ranges overlap. Prezygotic isolation is caused by barriers that prevent mating or fertilization between species. Examples are temporal isolation (differences in breeding times), mechanical isolation (when male and female sex organs are not compatible), habitat isolation (two species live in the same area but in different kinds of places), geographic isolation, and behavioral isolation (when there is little or no sexual attraction between males and females). Postzygotic isolation is caused by barriers that operate after hybrid zygotes are formed. They can cause reduced hybrid viability (when most hybrid offspring do not survive), reduced hybrid fertility (the hybrid offspring cannot reproduce), and hybrid breakdown (in which the first generation of hybrid offspring are viable and fertile, but the offspring of a hybrid and one of the parent species or another hybrid, the offspring are feeble or sterile).

I don't have the review sheet from the first two tests, so if anyone has the answers to the review sheet that might be helpful

If you have any review sheets of any kind put them here please

Biology Qwik Scan
As you read this please keep in mind i wrote it a 2:30 in the morning like 2 weeks ago so there will be errors- If you are a mod just fix them- you don't need to notify me

Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium- given the alleles p and q, when a population is in HWE, the frequency of the alleles in the following equation- P squared + 2pq + q squared= 1
Deviations of Hardy Weinberg/alteration of allele frequencies in a population
1. Natural Selection- Organisms best equipped to survive to reproductive age based on their environment will be best suited to reproduce and pass on their alleles to future generations
a. Stabilizing selection- favors intermediate phenotypes
b. Directional selection- favors one phenotype- probably extreme
c. Disruptive selection- favors extreme phenotypes
2. Genetic Drift- Change in frequency of alleles due to random chance by events such as the bottle neck effect or the founder effect
3. Gene Flow- Chance in frequencies in alleles due to emigration or immigration of fertile individuals from a population
4. Sexual Selection- Individuals with certain characteristics are more likely to reproduce than other possible mates
a. Sexual Dimorphism- Difference between males and females in a population
5. Mutation- change in frequency of alleles due to random mutation in the base pairs of DNA
Natural Selection
1. Balancing Selection- natural selection maintains frequencies in phenotype
2. Heterozygote advantage- individuals with heterozygous genotype are more likely to reproduce
3. Frequency dependent selection- maintains 2 phenotypes
4. Neutral variation- no advantages conferred from a variation
Prezygotic barriers
1. Temporal- species breed at different times
2. Habitat- 2 species live in the same general area but not the same type of place
3. Behavioral- little sexual attraction between individuals
4. Mechanical- reproductive parts don’t line up
5. Gametic- don’t form a zygote together
Postzygotic barriers
1. Reduced hybrid viability- most hybrid offspring don’t survive
2. Reduced hybrid fertility- hybrid offspring cant reproduce
3. Hybrid Breakdown- Offspring of the hybrids are small and unable to survive

This was essentialy all i studied and I got a 90 so Id say its at least worth a qwik look

thanks alex

Wait, did Biology Teacher say that the final would be only over this semester?

thank all of you so much

I made my correction on number 9 in the evolution one. If anyone has the review questions from the first two review sheets, I'm in need

I will do a review for the first test of this semester which is Mendel I think
But somebody needs to do the missing one
then...
Summer!

my cell phone smells like candy

its not your cell phone........

biology.......................................mmm ya

math guy wrote:

Wait, did Biology Teacher say that the final would be only over this semester?

yeah he did

thanks for the review sheet alex :D

alex left 2 in the first review sheet blank so if you dont have it its cricks central dogma which is DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is translated into polypeptides or so the review sheet someone sent me says

alex left 2 in the first review sheet blank so if you dont have it its cricks central dogma which is DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is translated into polypeptides or so the review sheet someone sent me says

DNA as genetic material chapter (ch 10)

NOTE: the solid bullet points are the questions
the hollow ones are the main answer
the square bullet points are more details to the hollow points

• When was DNA first discovered? By whom?
o DNA was first discovered in 1869 by Miescher
• What are the two chemical components of chromosomes?
o DNA
o Protein
• Be able to explain what Griffith did in his famous experiment in 1928. What was the significance of this experiment? What conc. Did he draw from his results? What question(s) remained?
o Griffith was studying pneumococcus nuclei (2 strains: “S” strains with protective capsules, “R” stains with no protective capsules)
 He injected “S” bacteria into mice → mouse was killed → mouse had “S” in
 Injected “R” into mice → mice lived → no live bacteria in
 Heat killed “S” into mice → mice lived → no live bacteria in
 Heat killed “S” and live “R” into mice → mice died → live “S” in
o He concluded that “R” got something from the “S” to make “R” → “S”
o Through this exp. Griffith discovered transformation
 “R” bacteria used some transforming factor from “S” to produce protection capsule and become “S”
 The question remained... “What was this transforming factor?”
• What did Avery, McLeod, and McCarty do to answer the important question left unanswered by Griffith? What was sig. of their experiment?
o the 3 set out to find this factor
o they discovered that only “S” DNA was able to transform “R”
o thus, DNA is the transforming factor
• Be able to explain the Hershey—Chase experiment. What did their results confirm?
o They used bacteriophages (a virus, like all, made of DNA surrounded by protein capsid)
o Note: DNA has Phosphorus but no Sulfur, but protein has sulfur but no phosphorus
o They took radioactive P (32P) and radioactive S (35S) and replaced normal P and S with these in protein and DNA
o 32P:
 (Normal S), but radioactive DNA
 makes virus infect E. coli
 uses Waring Blender to detach bacteriophages from E. coli
 Centrifuges
 Outcome: the phage’s capsid was not the thing that infected E. coli, but instead, the radioactive DNA was inside the E. coli
o 35S
 Normal P, radioactive protein capsid
 makes virus infect E. coli
 uses Waring Blender to detach bacteriophages from E. coli
 Centrifuges
 Outcome: The radioactive capsids were not inside the infected E. coli
o THEREFORE, DNA is the genetic material, not protein
• What properties were known to be held by the genetic material before it was even determined what the genetic material was?
o Must carry information for making many diverse proteins
o Must be able to be faithfully replicated
• Who determined the chemical structure of DNA? When? What evidence did they base this proposed structure on?
o Watson and Crick determined the structure in 1953
o They used evidence from:
 Edwin Chargaf
• Amt Adenine = Amt Thymine
• Amt Cytosine = Amt Guanine
 Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
• X-ray crystallography
• What are the three components of a DNA nucleotide
o 5-carbon sugar
o Phosphate group
o Nitrogen-base
• Be able to explain and illustrate the process DNA replication, indicating the enzymes involved and their functions
1. Helicase binds the origin and unwinds the helix in both directions
2. RNA primer (placed by primase)—“starting block” for DNA replication
3. DNA polymerase – makes a polymer of DNA complementary to the old strand (only moves 5’ to 3’)
4. Proofreader Enzymes remove RNA primers and replace with DNA, and remove errors and replace with the correct DNA
5. Ligase seals the gap between nucleotides left behind by proofreader enzymes
• Be familiar with the process of DNA gel electrophoresis. What is its purpose?
o DNA gel electrophoresis separates DNA or protein fragments by size, for various uses, like crime scenes (comparing crime scene DNA with various suspects)
o Process:
 The crime scene sample and some suspect’s samples are stained blue and mixed with agarose and put into a special sponge-like object, only with microscopic pores
 An electric charge is sent through the object, causing the DNA to move from the negative to the positive side
 The smaller DNA fragments move faster through the pores, and thus, make it further in the given time
 The larger move slower, and don’t move as far through the pores
 the results can be compared with the crime scene, and if the crime scene’s matches anyone else’s, then that is their DNA found at the scene
• What is DNA fingerprinting? Be familiar with its role in forensics and research
o A procedure that analyzes DNA fragments to determine whether they come from a specific individual
o Doesn’t necessarily use fingerprints—can use any form of DNA
o Can be used for solving crimes, etc
• What is PCR? What does it stand for? Who invented it? Why is it so valuable? Be able to explain how it works
o PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is the making of billions of identical copies of DNA
o Invented by:
o It is used for various things, including replicating DNA found at a crime scene (if the DNA at crime scene isn’t enough), or for replicating very old DNA
o Requires:
 DNA to be amplified
 Primers
 DNA Polymerase
 Free nucleotides (A’s, T’s, G’s, C’s)
o Procedure:
 A DNA strand is denatured in an atmosphere of 94-96 C
 The primers must now anneal (at a 3’ area) to a specific location in an atmosphere of 50-60 C
 Lastly, at 72 C, DNA polymerase builds onto the specific location and moves 5’ to 3’
 The process then repeats until enough DNA is made
o 3 Phases of PCR:
 Denaturation
 Annealing
 Extension

TERMS TO KNOW

• Transformation: the incorporation of new genes into a cell from DNA that the cell takes up from the surrounding environment
• 32P: the radioactive isomer of Phosphorus that was put into a phage’s DNA for an experiment
• 35S: the radioactive isomer of Sulfur that was put into a phage’s protein shell for an experiment
• Chargaff’s rule: The amount of Adenine = Amt of Thymine; Amt. Cytosine = amt Guanine
• Rosalind Franklin: invented X-ray crystallography
• Maurice Wilkins: colleague of Franklin
• Antiparallel: an important quality of DNA that allows DNA to replicate
• Origin of replication: a sequence of DNA that helicase recognizes and binds to
• Helicase: an enzyme that binds the origin and unwinds DNA in both directions
• Primase: the enzyme that places the RNA primer
• RNA Primers: the “starting blocks” for DNA replication
• DNA polymerase: makes a polymer of DNA complimentary to the old strand (moves only 5’ to 3’)
• DNA ligase: seals the gap between nucleotides left by the proofreader enzymes
• Proofreader enzymes: remove the RNA primers and replace with DNA, and remove errors and replace with correct DNA
• Continuous replication: the replication moving 5’ to 3’
• Discontinuous replication: the place where that no replication occurs when a primer is set (it goes 3’ to 5’)
• Template strand:??
• Semiconservative replication: the type of DNA replication which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand
• Taq polymerase: the Thermus Aquaticus’ (a bacteria that lives in hot springs) polymerase that was identified and used so that DNA could be replicated in high temp
• Agarose: the microscopic pores the right size for DNA fragments
• Methylene blue: a dye that is used to stain DNA to make it more visible

didn't make Mendel review
not that hard tho

I'm doing mendel so that we can have all the material up here